Endocrine Surgery 3 other hormones

OTHER HORMONES

4.1 Thymus

      This gland is a part of the immune system and secretes a hormone to control the production of white cells called T-cells. These T-cells have an important role in the immune defence mechanism they act as “memory cells and killer cells”

4.2 Kidney

      The essential function of the organ is waste exertion. It also secretes erythropoietin which stimulates production of RBC in the bone marrow and renin that effects the BP. This effect on BP is produced by stimulating production of angiotensin that cause blood vessels to contact.

4.3 Duodenum

      This being a digestive organ secretes cholecystokin that controls gall bladder function. This hormone is relased entry of acid and fasts into the lumen of the duodenum. The gall bladder secrete digestive enzymes.

4.4 Stomach and Small intestine

      Secrete hormones gastsr in stimulate stomach to secrete acid  and secretin that control secretion of gastro intestinal juices like pancrean to secrete bicarbonate.

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Endocrine Surgery 2 hormones & stress

2.3.3 There is strong evidence confirming that neural signals are converted into a hormonal signal integration of two systems and the hypothalamic pituitary complex is an example and is the principle avenue of adaptation to stress and trauma(Fig. 30.4).

2.3.4 The control organs and target organs show the  mechanism of negative feed look loop. These are adrenal pituitary the insulin secretion of pancreas and thyroid hormone secretion. Excess levels bormones suppress the control organ. Fig 30.5

2.3.5 STRESS RESPONSE

      One of the common external events that puts the endocrine system into action is the series of responses initiated by the stress of injury (trauma) Fig 30.6

2.3.5.1 HYPOTHALAMO PITUITARY

      This is one of the principle mechanism involved in the metabolic response to trauma. The stimulus for this response originates from the site of injury and factors produced by the injured tissue. This results in increased production of ACTH releasing factor by the hypothalamus. This releasing factor on reaching the anterior pituatory releases increased ACTH. This in turn on reaching the cortex of the adrenal releases larger quantities of cortisol

      Plasma cortisol levels remain high for 2-3 days after injury but may persist longer if infection occurs. The above series of events can be reduced by neurogenic blockage

of the injured part

2.3.5.2 Sympatho Adrenal

      The catechslamines are also a neuro endocrine response to injury. These hormones ie. adrenaline and non-adrenaline stimulate glycogenlysis and mobilise free fatty acids and increase oxygen utilisation

2.3.5.3 Glycogon

      It is released immediatly after injury from the pancreatic alpha cells through sympathetic nerve actions. Glucogon has both glycolytisis and reduced glycrgen synthesis leading to more available glucose. All these actions results in better oxygen utilisation and provide protein and energy substrate for repair and recovery.

3. TRANSPORT

      Hormones have to be transported from the site of production to the site of cellular action and the insoluble hormones, the sex steroids (Estradiol, Testosterone) travel on a binding globulin similarly, Thyroxin too travels on TBG. (Thyroxin binding Globulin) is ample evidence that it functions as an integrated system towards its objective of maintaining the internal environment in health and disease, though it lacks anatomical continuity, it maintains the functions of reproduction, growth and development and repair of the organism

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Endocrine Surgery1

• 
  THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

  1. INTRODUCTION

  1.1 General Endocrinology can be defined as the study of

  communication between cells by a chemical messenger (Hormone)

  synthesized by endocrine cells in vivo and directed at specific

  target cells.

  1.2 Most endocrine cells that synthesise the hormones have a

  limited capacity to store the hormone. Thus these glands need to

  turnover several times just to keep pace with daily requirements

  for the hormones. The normal thyroid gland contains two weeks

  stored supply in the form of thyroglobulin. Nerve endings may have

  several days supply of norepinophrine.

  1.3 The rate of different hormone release is periodic in the form

  of a set rhythm, the cycles varies from minutes to hours or daily

  (Circadian) loss of this rythm in clinical cases may be an early

  evidence of a disordered state.

  2. A HORMONE

  A hormone, being the chemical substance synthesized by a

  group of endocrine cells (in ductless glands) and secreted

  directly into the blood stream (since there are no ducts) for

  quick transport to target organs so as to influence their internal

  metabolism.

  2.1 The important body functions responsive to hormone actions

  are:

  2.1.1 The Milieu Interior (fluid, Electrolytes). The internal

  environment

  2.1.2 Emergency stress response i.e.metabolic response to injury

  2.1.3 Reproduction i.e. ova and sperm production, fertilisation

  and implantation

  2.1.4 Growth and development of both

  i) Normal tissue and

  ii) Neoplastic tissue

  2.2 The hormones we know are either

  * Peptides (made of sequence of amino acids)

  * Steroids (The hormones has a six sided steroid ring and the

  precursor is cholesterol) or

  * amines (are also derived from amino acids)

  Hormone action starts with the step of binding with a cell

  membrane or intracellular specific receptor for the hormone.

  2.3 There is evidence available that the Endocrine System is

  integrated in its activity to achieve biologic goals. The ed by
• the activity of the pituitary gland (Fig 30.1a & b). The pituitary

  gland receives instruction through neural signals (Fig 30.2
  
  
  

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